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Ještě dnes lze vystopovat podobnost a příbuznost mezi tvary pádů jednotlivých zájmen, podstatných a přídavných jmen (v češtině, ruštině, němčině, latině, praslovanštině…) – viz tabulky. Byl-li někdy někde nějaký prvotní jazyk anebo jazyky v dávnověku, možná to byla dokonalá řeč a naše jazyky jsou toho důkazem ještě v současnosti. Ale spíše to byly pouho pouhé skřeky a zvuky, které před -302.000 lety naši předci v Africe vyluzovali.
Ordering of Letters in Alphabets
abstract: This article discusses the possibility to order letters in alphabets according to a logical key. At present the ordering of letters in European alphabets, specifically in the Greek alphabet, the Latin script, and the Russian alphabet, is random. Phones are divided into vowels and consonants, which can be subsequently divided into groups. Therefore, an opportunity opens to order letters in an alphabet in a natural way. If the letters have the same ordering in alphabets, they can be compared better and, they can also be learnt more easily. This principle can be applied even to syllabaries (such as Japanese Hiragana and Katakana).
key words: ordering of letters in alphabets, an alphabet, Cyrillic, Latin script.
There are many types of alphabets. Alphabets can often be syllabaries, however, the most commonly used are alphabets representing phonemes, primarily Latin script, or else Cyrillic. The Greek alphabet, Latin script and Cyrilic are based on the Phoenician alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet was improved mainly by the Greeks, by adding some vowels or symbols. Left-handed people could influence the alphabets written from right to left, and primarily Semitic alphabets related to Hebrew and Arabic.
The most common ordering of alphabets is such, as the letters had been randomly written from the ancient times, thus vowels and consonants in different order consecutively. All the phones that a person can pronounce are listed in the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet).
Alphabets can be ordered in this way: first the vowels because there are fewer of them than consonants, they sound independently and carry more weight in spoken language. Vowels are categorized based on the place where they are formed in the speech organs in Hellwag triangle. Naturally, what follows are consonants, there are more of them than vowels, they sound only together with vowels and they usually go in pairs, i.e. voiced and voiceless. Only some voiceless consonants have their voiced counterpart, therefore they form a pair. On the other hand, all voiced consonants have their voiceless equivalent. An integral part of all alphabets are other symbols for recording more phones, such as q, x; these can also be arranged at the end of the alphabet based on the same principle, as “kv”, “ks”. Therefore, a natural ordering of letters in an alphabet arises; if the letters have the same ordering in all alphabets (the phones are divided into vowels and consonants). Not only can they be better compared but they are also easier to learn. And it is possible even though national alphabets do not consist of the same number of letters. This principle can also be applied to syllabaries (for ex. to Japanese Hiragana and Katakana), and the like. In the word ordering based on such alphabets, homonyms would follow one after the other, such as: vir/vír/víra/výr, vít/Vít(ek)/výt, sírový/syrový/sýrový, správa/zprava/zpráva atd. The ordering of letters in alphabets, and also the ordering of words based on that is as follows (in a simplified way):
Latin script:
I i, Í í, Y y, Ý ý, E e, É é, A a, Á á, O o, Ó ó, U u, Ú ú ů, M m, N n, Ň ň, Ṅ ṅ, R r, L l, Ĺ ĺ, Ľ ľ, Ŀ ŀ, J j, P p, B b, T t, D d, Ť ť, Ď ď, Ṫ ṫ, Ḋ ḋ, K k, G g, C c, Dz dz, Č č, Dž dž, Ċ ċ, Ġ ġ, F f, V v, W w, S s, Z z, Š š, Ž ž, Ṡ ṡ, Ż ż, Ř ř, Ṙ ṙ, Ch ch (Ȟ ȟ), Ḣ ḣ, H h, Ě ě, Ę ę, Ą ą, Q q, X x.
Greek alphabet:
Ι ι, Υ υ, Ε ε, Η η, Α α, Ο ο, Ω ω, Μ μ, Ν ν, Ρ ρ, Λ λ, Π π, Β β, Τ τ, Δ δ, Θ θ, Κ κ, Γ γ, Ζ ζ, Φ φ, Σ σ, Χ χ, Ψ ψ, Ξ ξ.
Russian alphabet:
И и, Ы ы, Э э, А а, О о, У у, М м, Н н, Р р, Л л, Й й, П п, Б б, Т т, Д д, К к, Г г, Ц ц, Ч ч, Ф ф, В в, С с, З з, Ш ш, Ж ж, Х х, Е е, Я я, Ё ё, Ю ю, Щ щ, Ь ь, Ъ ъ.
English alphabet:
I i, (Ee ee), Y y, E e, A a, (Æ æ), O o, U u, (Oo oo), M m, N n, R r, L l, J j, P p, B b, T t, D d, Th th, (Dh dh), K k, G g, C c, Ch ch, F f, V v, W w, S s, Z z, Sh sh, (Zh zh), (Kh kh), H h, Q q, X x.
German alphabet:
I i, Y y, Ü ü, E e, Ë ë, A a, Ä ä, Ö ö, O o, U u, M m, N n, R r, L l, J j, P p, B b, T t, D d, K k, G g, C c, Z z, Tsch tsch, Dsch dsch, F f, V v, W w, S s, ß β, Sch sch, Ch ch, H h, Q q, X x.
Esperanto alphabet:
I i, (Y y), E e, A a, O o, U u ŭ, M m, N n, R r, L l, J j, P p, B b, T t, D d, K k, G g, C c, (Dz dz), Ĉ ĉ, Ĝ ĝ, F f, V v, (W w), S s, Z z, Ŝ ŝ, Ĵ ĵ, Ĥ ĥ, H h, (Q q), (X x).
Greek has 24 letters, English 26 letters, Esperanto 28, German 31, Russian 33, Czech 44 (including a diagraph „Ch“ – pronounced as: [ĥ] and „ů“ – pronounced as: [ú]) …, that is uppercase and lower case letters and uppercase and lower case cursive letters (i.e.. 4×) …
Further information:
• <nowiki>https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezin%C3%A1rodn%C3%AD_fonetick%C3%A1_abeceda</nowiki>
Literature:
• ČERMÁK, František. Jazyk a jazykověda: přehled a slovníky. Vyd. 3., dopl. Praha: Karolinum, 2001. Učební texty Univerzity Karlovy v Praze. <nowiki>ISBN 978-80-246-0154-0</nowiki>.
• ČERNÝ, Jiří a Jan HOLEŠ. Sémiotika. Praha: Portál, 2004. <nowiki>ISBN 80-7178-832-5</nowiki>.
• ČERNÝ, Jiří. Dějiny lingvistiky. Olomouc: Votobia, 1996. <nowiki>ISBN 80-85885-96-4</nowiki>.
• ČERNÝ, Jiří. Úvod do studia jazyka. Olomouc: Rubico, 1998. <nowiki>ISBN 80-85839-24-5</nowiki>.
Indo-European Cases
abstract: This article discusses the possibility to order Indo-European cases based on the form and supposed development of the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European language. Such ordering therefore allows a better comparison between individual Indo-European languages. To illustrate this, we are demonstrating a few Indo-European language and their cases, which have been ordered based on such criteria. Implementation of such ordering should therefore have a number of practical advantages. It would be good if this ordering were used at least in specialized publications dealing with this topic.
key words: ordering of cases, Indo-European languages, Proto-Indo-European language, development of cases from PIE
It is supposed and it has been more or less proven that the ancient language from which all current European and Indian languages have developed had a range of conveniences. Hungarian, Estonian and Finnish belong to the Finno-Ugric languages. Their ancestors arrived towards the end of the Migration Period (after 910 A.D.) from the east and subjugated most of the surrounding European (Slavic, Germanic) population, to whom they have also impressed their language. Therefore, apart from some exceptions languages in Europe are of a Proto-Indo-European origin.
This Proto-Indo-European language used to have 9 cases, which have been reduced until current times. In Romani the 8th case, the ablative, has been preserved. In English cases have ceased to exist (they are expressed with the help of prepositions only), but it has preserved the sophisticated system of Proto-Indo-European tenses (the disadvantage of English is its conservative way of writing of words even though the spoken word is continuously evolving). In Slavic languages, especially in Slovenian, the dual case has been preserved, the so-called double number, which denotes two entities. The endings in Nominative usually denoted one entity (singular number) “-a”, for two entities (dual number) “-e” and for three and more entities (plural number) “-i/-y”, but it does have to be the rule.
Examples of the dual number in Czech:
1 oko, 2 oči, 3 oka; 1 ucho, 2 uši, 3 ucha; 1 ruka, 2 ruce, 3 ruky; 1 na oku, 2 na očích, 3 na okách; 1 na uchu, 2 na uších, 3 na uchách; 1 na ruce, 2 na rukou, 3 na rukách; 1 na noze, 2 na nohou, 3 na nohách etc.denoted one entity (singular number) “-a”, for two entities (dual number) “-e” and for three and more entities (plural number) “-i/-y”, but it does have to be the rule.
Pronouns in Czech
Nominative já my ty Vy on ona ono oni ony ona
Vocative my! ty! vy!
Accusative mě
(mne) nás tě
(tebe) vás jeho ji jeho je (jich) je (jich) je (jich)
Genitive mě
(mne) nás tě
(tebe) vás něho ní něho nich nich nich
Locative mně nás tobě vás něm ní něm nich nich nich
Dative mně nám tobě vám němu jí jemu nim nim nim
Instrumental mnou námi tebou vámi ním ní jím nimi nimi nima
In Polish, and especially in Czech, 5th case has been preserved (denoting the addressee). In addition, the Slavs express the grammatical aspect – perfective aspect (an action that has been completed) and imperfective aspect (the action has not been completed and is continuing). Passive voice (vezen, nesen) and active voice (veze, nese), other conveniences are becoming obsolescent (u/dělající; u/dělajíc, u/dělajíce; u/dělav, u/dělavše; jsa, jsouc; byv, byvše etc.).
Even at present a similarity and relation between the case forms of individual pronouns, nouns and adjectives can be traced (in Czech, Russian, German, Latin, Proto-Slavic …) – see the tables. The number of materials is beyond the scope of this article. What can be said in conclusion? If there had ever been some kind of proto-language or languages in ancient times, it might have been a perfect language and our languages are a proof of that even at present times. However, they might have been simple shrieks and sounds, which were produced by our ancestors in Africa some 302,000 years ago.
Ordering of Czech cases (allowing for the historical development form Proto-Indo-European):
Neutral gender, singular number:
1. město moře kuře stavení
5. město! moře! kuře! stavení!
4. město moře kuře stavení
2. města moře kuřete stavení
6. městu, -ě moři kuřeti stavení
3. městu moři kuřeti stavení
7. městem mořem kuřetem stavením
German
masculine feminine neuter plural
1. Der Die Das Die
4 Den Die Das Die
2 Des Der Des Der
3 Dem Der Dem Den
masculine feminine neuter
1 Ein Eine Ein
4 Einen Eine Ein
2 Eines Einer Eines
3 Einem Einer Einem
Literature:
• ČERMÁK, František. Jazyk a jazykověda: přehled a slovníky. Vyd. 3., dopl. Praha: Karolinum, 2001. Učební texty Univerzity Karlovy v Praze. <nowiki>ISBN 978-80-246-0154-0</nowiki>.
• ČERNÝ, Jiří a Jan HOLEŠ. Sémiotika. Praha: Portál, 2004. <nowiki>ISBN 80-7178-832-5</nowiki>.
• ČERNÝ, Jiří. Dějiny lingvistiky. Olomouc: Votobia, 1996. <nowiki>ISBN 80-85885-96-4</nowiki>.
• ČERNÝ, Jiří. Úvod do studia jazyka. Olomouc: Rubico, 1998. <nowiki>ISBN 80-85839-24-5</nowiki>.
== Literatura ==
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